Abstracts:

Adrian Tordiffe
Diabetes in Primates: a Preventable Disease

Diabetes mellitus is increasingly being recognized as a major health problem in older primates in captivity. This disease has been reported to be more prevalent in Old World monkeys, but with cases also reported in New world monkeys, great apes, and prosimians. As in humans, most diabetic primates have type-2 diabetes, associated with increasing age and obesity. The causes of diabetes are often not clearly defined in primates. Stress, viral infections, and genetic factors may play a role in the pathogenesis of this disease. However, as in humans, the major factors are thought to be incorrect diet and lack of exercise. In April 2007, a 29 year old, male western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) was diagnosed with type-2 diabetes at the National Zoological Gardens of South Africa. Complications of his diabetes included severe periodontal disease, and bilateral occlusions of the central retinal arteries resulting in substantial loss of vision. Initial diet modifications and oral hypoglycaemic drugs (Metformin Hydrochloride) failed to stabilize his blood glucose levels, and insulin therapy was initiated. Rapid behavioral conditioning was critical to facilitate the once daily insulin (Insulin Glargine) injections that he required. Monitoring of his condition consists of daily urine glucose and ketone measurements and blood samples are now taken every three months to measure fructosamine levels. The aim is to maintain his fructosamine levels below 250 μmol/l. After more than a year of therapy, his current medication program consists of 1000mg of Metformin Hydrochloride b.i.d., 90 units of Insulin Glargine s.i.d. In addition to this, he receives 20mg of Simvastatin s.i.d. to control his hypercholesterolaemia. Besides the obvious medical and dietary interventions, environmental enrichment and behavioral training programs have been put in place to increase his activity levels. The disease is in the majority of cases preventable and with more species-specific nutritional knowledge becoming available; the possibility of largely eradicating diabetes from captive primate populations exists.

Thys de Wet
Solutions to Baboon Damage to Pine Plantations

The project is still new and quite complex. The results, therefore, are preliminary and may change as more data is collected. The project was initiated because of serious damage caused by baboons to Pine plantations. The pine bark is stripped – often ring-barking leading to the death of the tree, but even if not ring-barked, the wood quality suffers dramatically. Trees of age of three years (pre pruning age) right through to trees of 28 years of age (post pruning age) are attacked. The bi-annual survey on damage indicates an exponential growth in damage. Newer damage not in the formal survey, indicate damage of up to 75% of young trees over large areas. This amount of damage clearly is unsustainable. Bear in mind that Wood is a strategic product, that a shortage is developing and that the forestry areas have been zoned as such since the 1930s. Production can be increased only by planting new grassland or by managing existing plantations optimally. On average, 27% of plantation property is managed as conservation land and this includes the protection of endangered animals and plants. The forestry industry has no problem with baboons per se and there are scores of baboon troops on plantation properties. However, damage has to be managed. Research has been sponsored and the Baboon Damage Working Group and, with a stakeholder component, has been looking for non-lethal control methods for over a decade. Removing damage causing baboon is still the only effective way of dealing with the problem. Bark stripping is believed to be displacement behavior and happens when normal foraging patterns are disturbed eg. during rain or other stress-causing factors in the plantation. Once this behavior is acquired, it is also expressed during agonistic troop encounters. Three adjacent troops have thus far been fitted with GPS collars on Blyde plantation. More will follow. The troops spend the vast majority of their time inside the plantation. Plantation offer better baboon habitat than natural habitat – the troops are twice as large, spend 20% less time feeding and have large numbers of flimsy sleeping sites, indicating a quest for comfort rather than protection. It seems like barks stripping is mainly done by sub-adults and young adults. More scientific involvement would be welcomed.

Judith Masters
The French Connection: !Khure and Lemur Origins

The !Khure Project is a Franco-South African collaboration under the joint leadership of Professors Maarten de Wit (Africa Earth Observation Network, Geological Sciences, UCT) and Vincent Courtillot (Institute de Physique du Globe de Paris, Université Paris 7), and comprises a suite of subprojects related to linking the evolution of life to the geodynamic evolution of the Earth. Each subproject is overseen be a French and a South African Principle Investigator. I have been linked with Professor Jean-Jacques Jaeger, the renowned palaeontologist studying the origin of anthropoid primates. One of the most enduring mysteries in primate evolution is how the lemurs colonized Madagascar. Even the source of the colonization (Africa, Asia) is a matter of hot debate. Jaeger’s team has unearthed early primate fossils in Libya, Morocco, Thailand, Myanmar, and China. He and I will now conduct an expedition to Madagascar, to see whether our joint skills and experience can throw any light on this seemingly intractable problem.
Key words: primate origins, Madagascar, lemurs, colonization

S. Volampeno and G. Randriatahina
Predation on Two Lemur Species in Sahamalaza Peninsula, North-Western Madagascar

Five groups of blue-eyed black lemur were followed over two successive rainy seasons (September 2006 – March 2008) in Sahamalaza Peninsula National Park, Madagascar. A total of 1576 hours of observation on 12 lactating females and 21 infants was made. During the study, we encountered predation on lemurs by a fossa and raptors. An infant blue-eyed black lemur fell victim to a fossa at the age of two weeks. A harrier hawk attacked an adult female blue-eyed black lemur and a Madagascar buzzard killed an adult female Sahamalaza sportive lemur. We describe the anti-predator behavior of blue-eyed black lemurs.
Key words: blue-eyed black lemur, Sahamalaza sportive lemur, predation, fossa, Madagascar harrier hawk, Madagascar buzzard

J.L. Danzy
Variable Scrotal Coloration and Socio-sexual Communication of the Vervet Monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops)

An increasing amount of attention has been given to the development of coloration (Norconk et al., 2008), female preference for coloration (Setchell, 2005; Waitt et al., 2006), and specific signal content of coloration (Gerald, 1999; Setchell et al., 2006) among primates. Dixson (1999: 195) suggests that examining if females attend to changes in male coloration is important for our understanding of the evolution of sexual skin and its coloration. Previous research demonstrates that vervet monkey scrotal coloration meets some of the criteria of a sociosexual signal (Snowden, 2003); the signal is sexually dimorphic (Struhsaker, 1967) and conspecifics are able to discriminate between individuals of varying coloration (Gerald, 1999; Gerald, 2001; Gerald, 2006). There is some evidence that females pay attention to color differences between males, although their preference appears to possibly be related to a suite of male characteristics, rather than color alone (Gerald, 2006). This project proposes to examine: 1) inter-individual and intra-individual color variability; 2) the relationship between female choice and male coloration; 3) the potential hormonal, immunological, and parasitological underpinnings of color; and 4) the relationship between male coloration and individual reproductive success. In addition to contributing to our understanding of sociosexual communication and secondary sexual characteristics, this project will help illuminate the complexity of vervet reproductive ecology, and add to our growing understanding of their unique multiple male social system among the guenons (Isbell et al., 2002).

R. Sithaldeen, R.R. Ackermann, J.Bishop

A high level of external and behavioral variation within P.ursinus has been documented. This degree of variation behavior is not surprising if you assume that chacmas are in fact the oldest lineage within Papio (Newman et al., 2004). In this study, we have constructed a phylogenetic tree of chacma populations and looked at the influence of gene flow on genetic sub structuring within chacma. Samples were collected from South Africa, Namibia, and Botswana. All samples were sequenced for the mitochondrial control region (D-loop), and a subset were sequenced for the 896bp mitochondrial Brown region. Sequences were analyzed by parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian methods and trees were rooted using Theropithecus gelada sequence data. Brown region data showed that animals from Namibia and the South African coastal belt formed a clade, while individuals from the Caprivi Strip group together in a clade with individuals from the South African interior and Botswana. This split has been tentatively dated to 1.2mya, older than the divergence events leading to the emergence of all other Papio mitochondrial lineages. The control region data shows that populations tend to group along lines of geographic rather than evolutionary distance. These results suggest that the current pattern of genetic structuring within chacma is a result of the interaction between large-scale landscape changes brought about by climatic fluctuations, as well as more recent gene flow events.

Kirsten Wimberger, Colleen T Downs, and Michael R Perrin
Post-release Success of Two Rehabilitated Vervet Monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops pygerythrus)

Troops in South Africa Large numbers of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops pygerythrus) in rehabilitation centers in South Africa prompted the local conservation authority to investigate methods for release in an effort to improve release success and understand why previous releases have had such low reported successes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of releasing two captive vervet monkey troops into the wild according to current practices employed at the rehabilitation centre. These rehabilitated vervet monkeys were once pets, orphans or injured wild individuals. Colored ear tags identified adults, sub-adults, and juveniles in each of the two troops. Radio-collars were placed on the adults and sub-adults of both troops (41% of individuals). Pre-release health checks included blood samples for haematology and biochemical analyses. For 10 months after release, locations of both troops were recorded, as well as the presence/absence of individuals and general behavior. Results suggest that the smaller troop survived better than the larger troop, with only 4 of 35 confirmed alive in the large troop compared with 12 of 24 in the small troop. However, 22 individuals were unaccounted for in the large group and 7 in the small group. The release of the small group was judged as successful, due to a minimum of 50% survival, including the survival of an infant monkey, and the troop not being dependent on humans. Since there are too many unaccounted individuals in the large troop, the release can only be seen as successful as judged on the two births 10 months post-release. Recommendations are provided for considerations in future releases of captive vervet monkeys.

A.J. Marais
Distribution of Primates on the Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve, Mpumalanga

The Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve is a diverse protected area that stretches over the great escarpment in Mpumalanga. Because of the difference in altitude, from 460m –1940m asl, there is a difference in rain fall from 650mm-1940mm. These factors are contribution to the diversity of plant communities and species. Most of these habitats are ideal for primates and all five the primates spp. Occur on the reserve; Papio ursinus, Cercopithecus mitis, Cercopithecus aethiops, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Galago moholi With increasing pressure on the environment, these protected areas are unique in the protection of all the primate species in South Africa. This also makes it an ideal study area for these animals and numerous studies have being conducted already. In general Papio ursinus are the most common and can be found at the highest and lowest points on the reserve between altitudes (460-1940m asl) throughout most of the vegetation types occurring on the reserve Cercopithecus mitis can mostly be found in the indigenous forests with an altitude range (800-1940m asl). Cercopithecus aethiops can be found in the woodlands and mix woodland areas with an altitude range (460-800m asl). Otolemur crassicaudatus can mostly be found in the bushveld and forest fringes (460-1600m asl) and Galago moholi can only be found in bushveld riverine vegetation and Acacia thickets (460-550m asl). In general it seems that the Galago moholi is habitat specific and only occurs in a narrow altitude range and is therefore the most vulnerable of all the primate species on the reserve.
Key words: Five primate species, protected area, diversity, altitude range, vulnerable, vegetation type.

Kim Vigue, Patricia Whitten, Benjamin Campbell, and Trudy Turner
Behavioral and Hormonal Variability in Captive Vervet Monkeys

This study reports on the behavioral and hormonal variability of vervet monkeys in captive (Riverside Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre) and free-ranging (Umhlanga, KwaZuluNatal) environments. The aim of this project was to investigate the behavioral and endocrine measures of stress in formerly deprived, rehabilitant groups and a wild population heavily impacted by human encroachment. Fecal samples and focal data were collected over two months to examine how these vervets cope with the relocation into more species-appropriate environments and challenges of resocialization with conspecifics through the assessment of social development and measurement of cortisol production. Preliminary results show that free-ranging vervet monkeys had significantly higher cortisol levels than both socially and singly housed rehabilitant groups. Among rehabilitant vervets, the earliest periods of care were the most stressful which was reflected in the highest fecal cortisol levels and rate of abnormal and defensive behaviors. However, by the fourth week, cortisol levels along with abnormal and defensive behaviors decreased significantly while affiliative behaviors increased. Affiliative and solitary behaviors differed significantly among the sexes with females being more affiliative and males more solitary. Likewise, younger males had lower cortisol levels than older males whereas younger females had higher cortisol levels than older females. These results reveal an overall decrease in cortisol levels and increase in social behaviors suggesting that rehabilitant vervets may be able to make gradual, responsive changes their environment despite early socially deprived rearing.

Trudy Turner, Paul Grobler, and Joseph Lorenz
Overview of Research on Vervet Monkeys

Members of our team have been studying vervet monkeys in the wild for over 30 years. We review our studies conducted of vervet monkeys in Ethiopia, Kenya, and South Africa. All of our work has incorporated genetics, morphology, and dental eruption and wear data and recently hormonal assays. We have placed aliquots of our genetic samples at IPBIR (Integrated Primate Biomaterials and Information Resource) at Coriell Institute in New Jersey, USA. These samples will be available to other researchers interested in vervet monkeys. At the PEGG 2008 meeting, members of our team will present some of their findings on genetic differentiation, body size differences in different environments, and hormonal analysis and stress.

Paul Grobler, Joseph Lorenz, and Trudy Turner
Genetic Differentiation in Vervet Monkeys in South Africa

To date, we have examined over 200 vervet monkeys from over 20 troops at 11 locations in South Africa. Using information from microsatellite loci and statistical analysis including a Bayseian based assignment approach. We have found no differentiation in animals from different locations. However, we will defer making any formal conclusions until we have completed our sampling in South Africa. We also intend to include in our analysis data from single gene loci and mt DNA.